Grammar

Sounds

The set of all the sounds that are valid in a language is called its phoneme inventory. A language may have a particular sound that another language lacks. English is well known for lacking the guttural ch sound like in German Buch. On the other hand, the th sound in think is absent in German. Some languages, such as Japanese and Hawaiian, have very small inventories. Others, like English, have much larger inventories.

To a human, yinrih speech sounds like the quiet yipping and growling made by a dreaming dog. The range of sounds that a yinrih can produce is very limited compared to a human’s vocal repertoire. All yinrih languages rely heavily on changes in pitch and volume, as well as the subtle timing of these changes, to encode meaning. As such, words cannot be sung since the melody and rhythm would completely obscure the meaning.

Vowels

Vowels carry most of the weight. There are three vowel qualities, or phonations: a whine, a growl, and a grunt. These vowels can either be plain (monophthongs) or contoured (diphthongs). A plain vowel can have one of two lengths (short or long), one of two tones (low or high) and one of two volumes, or strengths as they are called here (weak or strong).

A contour consists of two plain vowels which serve as the endpoints of a gradient. The attributes of each plain vowel determine the shape of the gradient. There are two rules that govern what vowels can form contours. First, two plain vowels that differ only in length cannot form a contour. Second, the two vowels must have the same phonation type. If either of these two rules are broken, a hiatus occurs between the vowels and they form two syllables, like the English word Naive.

The following tables show the notation used for vowels. Lowercase letters are short.

The Vowels of Commonthroat
  Weak Strong
Short Long Short Long
Whines Low b B c C
High d D f F
Growls Low g G h H
High j J k K
Grunts Low l L m M
High n N p P

Since humans can’t utter Commonthroat, the best way to convey how a vowel is pronounced is to describe its phonetic features one by one. For plain vowels, this is simple enough: give its length, tone, strength, then phonation. b is a short, low, weak whine. P is a long, high, strong grunt.

Describing contours gets a little trickier. If both of the vowels in a contour share a phonetic feature, we use the same description we would for a plain vowel with that feature. If both vowels are long, then the contour is simply described as long. If both vowels are high, the contour as a whole is high, and so on. If there is a gradient between the two vowels, we describe it as follows:

  • A vowel that goes from low to high tone is called rising.
  • A vowel that goes from high to low tone is called falling.
  • A vowel that goes from weak strength to strong is called strengthening (increasing volume).
  • A vowel that goes from strong to weak is called weakening (decreasing volume).

But what about length? If the first vowel is short and the second is long, then the change from one vowel to the other occurs earlier in the syllable, so we call these contours early. If the first vowel is long and the second is short, the change occurs later in the syllable, so these contours are called late.

For a complete list of plain vowels and contours along with their phonetic features, see the Vowel Pronunciation Table in the appendix.

Consonants

Consonants are simple compared to vowels. There are only three: a huff, a chuff, and a yip. A huff is an exhalation through the nose. A chuff is similar to a huff, but trilled. It sounds somewhat like a short purr. Yinrih chuff as a form of greeting, like a human smile. A yip is a quiet little bark.

The Consonants of Commonthroat
Huff q
Chuff r
Yip s

A language’s phonetactics are the rules that govern where sounds can appear in a word. In English, for example, the ng in words like king and sing cannot occur at the beginning of a word, and the h in hat or hello cannot occur at the end of a word.

In Commonthroat, a syllable can start with a huff, chuff, yip, or it can have no initial consonant. A syllable may end with a huff, a chuff, or no consonant. A yip may not occur at the end of a syllable.

When pronunciations of words are given in this text, they will be set off by forward slashes, and the pronunciations of individual consonants and vowels will be separated by commas like this: CDr /long rising weakening whine, chuff/.

Grammar

Before discussing the grammar, we need to touch on interlinear glosses. A gloss is a word-by-word translation of a language sample. In this document, glosses contain three parts. The first part is a sample of Commonthroat. Prefixes and suffixes may be set off from the rest of their parent word by hyphens. The second part, directly below, is a word-by-word translation of the sample, with the English word left-aligned to its corresponding Commonthroat word above. Abbreviations of linguistic terms are written using capital letters. Simple glosses may not hyphenate prefixes or suffixes to make the example clearer.

For definitions and pronunciations of the words used in these examples, see the Glossary.

Syntax

The basic word order is subject-verb-object, like in English.

  1. sfcp lPr HJqp
    pup climb tree
    The pup climbed the tree.

Adjectives follow the nouns they describe.

  1. sfcp rpM lPr HJqp rbfq
    pup small climb tree old
    The small pup climbed the old tree.

Adjectives can also act like verbs.

  1. sfcp rpM
    pup small

    The pup is small.

  2. HJqp rbfq
    tree old

    The tree is old.

Adverbs that modify an entire sentence can come before the subject.

  1. spr sfcp lPr HJqp
    yesterday pup climb tree
    The pup climbed the tree yesterday.

Adverbs can also come right after the verb they describe.

  1. sfcp lPr rpMr HJqp
    pup climb happy tree
    The pup happily climbed the tree.

Adjectives can act like adverbs simply by moving them to the beginning of the sentence.

  1. sfcp rNlr
    pup good

    The pup is good.

  2. sfcp rNlr lPr HJqp
    pup good climb tree

    The good pup climbed the tree.

  3. rNlr sfcp lPr HJqp
    good pup climb tree

    The pup climbed the tree well.

Prepositional phrases can act like adverbs, modifying an entire sentence. In this case they are placed before the subject just like adverbs.

  1. P dqp sfcp lPr HJqp
    In forest pup climb tree
    In the forest, the pup climbed the tree.

Prepositional phrases can also act as adjectives, modifying a noun, and are placed after the noun like an adjective.

  1. sfcp lPr HJqp bc qDCp
    pup climb tree on mountain
    On the mountain the pup climbed the tree.

The word for not is rnL /chuff, early falling weak grunt/. It behaves like an adverb.

  1. rnL sfcp lPr HJqp
    not pup climb tree
    The pup did not climb the tree.

Nouns

Here’s where Commonthroat gets a little alien. Nouns change their ending depending on where the object the noun refers to is in space relative to the speaker. The technical term for this is deixis. English also indicates deixis, but it uses demonstratives like this and that. Demonstratives are optional in English, but not in Commonthroat.

Let’s start with the ending I’ve been using on most of the nouns you’ve seen so far, -p /short high strong grunt/. It can roughly be translated as that.... So Example (1) is more precisely translated

  1. sfc-p lP r HJq-p
    pup-D cl imb tree-D
    That pup climbed that tree.

The D in the gloss stands for distal which is the technical term for a demonstrative that indicates that something is far away from the speaker.

But what if the tree and the pup were a little closer? We’d use a medial suffix -qN /huff, long high weak grunt/. Which is abbreviated M in glosses.

  1. sfc-qN lPr HJq-qN
    pup-M climb tree-M

This pup climbed this tree.

Normally, a medial suffix is used for something close to the listener but far from the speaker. If we wanted to say that all this was happening right next to the speaker, we’d use a proximal suffix, -Mr /long low strong grunt, chuff/, abbreviated P in glosses.

  1. sfc-Mr lPr HJq-Mr
    pup-P climb tree-P
    This pup climbed this tree.

So far, so good, right? But what if we didn’t know or didn’t care where this stuff was happening? Commonthroat uses an indefinite suffix for that: -g /short low weak growl/. It’s abbreviated as I in glosses.

  1. sfc-g lPr HJq-g
    pup-I climb tree-I
    A pup climbed a tree.

The indefinite form of a noun is the base form seen in dictionaries. It’s used when the precise nature of the object the noun refers to is not known, not important, or when the word refers to a general class of objects rather than a specific object. 16 could also be translated as Pups climb trees. This usage, where a noun refers to a general class of objects, is referred to as gnomic.

Note that Modern English only distinguishes between two levels of demonstratives, proximal this and distal that. Older forms of English had a three-way distinction among proximal this, medial that, and distal yonder.

There’s also no reason why the pup and the tree in these examples must share the same deictic suffix. You could say

  1. sfc-Mr lPr HJq-g
    pup-P climb tree-I

This pup climbs trees.

  1. sfc-qN l Pr H Jq-p
    pup-M c limb t ree-D
    That pup climbed yonder tree.

To summarize, let’s look at a noun with each of the suffixes we’ve discussed so far. We’ll look at the word sFsFg /yip, long high strong whine, yip, long high strong whine, short low weak growl/ which means friend.

Noun Meaning
sFsFg a friend
sFsFMr this friend
sFsFqN that friend
sFsFp yonder friend

Personal Deixis

If Commonthroat only used those demonstrative suffixes, it wouldn’t be so alien, but it doesn’t stop there. Demonstratives are part of what’s called spatial deixis, which relates to where an object is relative to the speaker. There’s also personal deixis, which covers how the speaker identifies himself, how he identifies the listener, and how things that are neither the speaker nor the listener is identified. In English, we use personal pronouns like me when referring to yourself, you when referring to the listener, and he, she, or it when referring to someone or something that is neither the speaker nor the listener. You may recognize that I’m talking about first person, second person, and third person.

All the noun endings I’ve introduced are in the third person. From now on, the glosses of third person suffixes will include a 3 as a reminder. Any noun can also be inflected in the first or second person if the noun refers to the speaker or listener. So, if the speaker were the pup in the above examples, he’d say

  1. sfc-l lPr HJq-g
    pup-1 climb tree-3I
    I, a pup, climbed a tree.

If the speaker wanted to indicate that the listener was the pup, he’d say

  1. sfc-qn lPr HJq-g
    pup-2 climb tree-3I
    You, the pup, climbed a tree.

But it gets weirder. It’s perfectly grammatical for the speaker to indicate that they or the listener are the tree. When a noun that is clearly not a person is given a first- or second-person suffix, it is understood to be metaphorical.

  1. sfc-g lPr HJq-qn
    pup-3I climb tree-2
    A pup climbed you as though you were a tree.

Interrogative Nouns

There’s one last noun ending we need to cover. If you don’t know which pup climbed the tree, or which tree the pup climbed, and want the listener to identify the tree or the pup, you’d use the interrogative ending -BD /long rising weak whine/, which is abbreviated INT in glosses

  1. sfc-p lPr HJq-BD
    pup-3D climb tree-INT

    What tree did that pup climb?

  2. sfc-BD lPr HJq-g
    pup-INT climb tree-3I

    Which pup climbed a tree? What pup climbs trees?

Deictic Suffixes

That’s all the forms a noun can have. Here’s a table of all the suffixes along with their gloss abbreviations.

All Deictic Suffixes
Deixis Suffix Gloss
1st -l 1
2nd -qn 2
3rd indefinate -g 3I
3rd proximal -Mr 3P
3rd medial -qN 3M
3rd distal -p 3D
Interrogative -BD INT

And here’s sFsFg friend again in all its forms.

All forms of sFsFg friend
Deixis Inflection Translation
1st sFsFl I, the friend
2nd sFsFqn You, the friend
3rd indefinate sFsFg a friend, some friend, friends in general
3rd proximal sFsFMr This friend
3rd medial sFsFqN that friend
3rd distal sFsFp yonder friend
Interrogative sFsFBD What friend?

Possession

There are two ways of indicating possession. One method uses the preposition b /short low weak whine/, translated as of in English, and it behaves identically as well.

  1. sfc-g b dcr-p lPr HJq-p
    pup-3I of dam-3D climb tree-3D
    One of the mother’s pups climbed the tree.

The second method uses the possessive particle g /short low weak growl/, which comes before a noun. It shifts the meaning of the noun suffix. Instead of the suffix pointing to the noun itself, it now points to the possessor of the noun. A table best illustrates this.

Regular Noun Meaning Possessed Noun Meaning
sFsFl I, the friend g sFsFl my friend
sFsFqn you, the friend g sFsFqn your friend
sFsFg a friend g sFsFg someone’s friend
sFsFMr this friend g sFsFMr my friend
sFsFqN that friend g sFsFqN your friend
sFsFp yonder friend g sFsFp his/her/their friend
sFsFBD what friend? g sFsFBD whose friend?
  1. g sfc-p lPr HJq-p
    POS pup-3D climb tree-3D
    Her pup climbed the tree.

You may notice that there are two ways of saying my friend and your friend. The difference has to do with something called inalienable possession. A possession that’s inalienable is an integral part of the possessor. These include parts of the body, like rnqg paw or slPqg tail; and metaphysical things like sLg soul or sfBg mind.

Things that are inalienable use the first- and second-person noun suffixes, and things that are alienable use the 3rd person proximal suffix for my… and the 3rd person medial suffix for your….

  1. bc g rnq-l qgKq-p sMp
    on POS paw-1 yinrih-3D tread

    That yinrih stepped on my paw.

  2. bc g sgHq-Mr qgKq-p sMp
    on POS grass-3P yinrih-3D tread

    That yinrih stepped on my grass.

In example 26, the speaker is referring to his paw, which is an integral part of his body. In example 27, the speaker may own the grass being stepped on, but it isn’t an inseparable part of him.

Words that describe a relationship between two people, such as sFsFg friend can take either form, depending on how strong the relationship is according to the speaker. Someone you address as g sFsFMr is likely to be a casual acquaintance, but g sFsFl is someone you can really rely on.

You can also combine the two ways of expressing possession.

  1. rGhq-p b g sFsF-l jr
    house-3D of POS friend-1 big
    My friend’s house is big.

What About Pronouns?

Commonthroat does not have any pronouns. There’s no me or she or they or what. You’ve got to use a noun, even when referring to yourself or the listener. The noun you use can be chosen based on a few factors.

How you feel about the situation you’re describing:

  1. g qCD-Mr kHr rkHr-l
    POS brother-3P strike_with_tail angry-1

    My brother struck me, the angry one, with his tail.

    My brother hit me, and I’m angry about it.

Or what was going on when the event occurred:

  1. Plq-qn fCq rDBq-qN
    digger-2 find money-3M

    You, the digger, found money.

    You found money while digging.

But the easiest, and most common, strategy is to simply drop the word altogether. If context makes it clear who’s doing what, you can drop the subject or object. This is especially true for first person subjects.

  1. qCq g sFsF-l
    see POS friend-1
    [I] saw my friend

You can even do this with both the subject and the object.

  1. qCq
    see
    [I] saw [him].

But this would not be done in isolation like this example. It would be used as a response or in the middle of a conversation where context could fill in the blanks.

Compound Words

In English compound words, the first word modifies the second word. A doghouse is a kind of house, and a house dog is a kind of dog. In Commonthroat, the second word modifies the first.

  1. rnq-CDq-g
    paw-hold-3I

    holding paw (human hand)

  2. rnq-rfbr-g
    paw-walk-3I

    walking paw (human foot)

Both compounds start with rnqg, as both are considered types of paws. Since yinrih use all four paws for both grasping and movement, Commonthroat does not distinguish between the forepaws and rear paws in the same way that English does with hand and foot. In linguistics the phenomenon of two concepts sharing a word in one language that may be differentiated in another language is called colexification Examples 33 and 34 are Commonthroat’s way of telling human extremities apart.

Proper Names

Names in Commonthroat are formed from noun or verb phrases combined into one word, with a name suffix added. The content of the name does not indicate the person’s gender, but the suffix does.

Many names have something to do with light or phenomena that produce light, as light is heavily associated with the divine.

  1. qfr-rmK-sk-Mr
    fire-hearth-MALE.NAME-3P

    Hearthfire (male)

  2. qfr-rmK-sd-Mr
    fire-hearth-FEMALE.NAME-3P

    Hearthfire (female)

  3. qMNr-Mr-BCq-sd-Mr
    sun-3P-shine-FEMALE.NAME-3P

    She shines like the sun.

    Sunshine

Direct Address

English uses vocal inflection to indicate that the speaker is directly addressing the listener. This is indicated by commas in writing. Compare Let’s eat, grandma. and Let’s eat grandma.

Commonthroat also uses pauses to indicate direct address.

  1. qfrrmKsk-qn, sfc-p lPr HJq-p
    hearthfire-2, pup-3D climb tree-3D
    Hearthfire, the pup climbed the tree.

Don’t confuse this with inflecting the subject or object in the second person.

  1. qfrrmKsk-qn lPr HJq-p
    hearthfire-2 climb tree-3D
    You climbed the tree, Hearthfire.

In example 38, Hearthfire is being addressed, but he isn’t climbing the tree, the pup is. In example 39, the speaker is relating that Hearthfire climbed the tree to Hearthfire himself. In English, this expression requires the use of the second person pronoun you as the subject and the name of the listener set off as a direct address, but in Commonthroat, the deictic ending on the noun makes it clear that the noun refers to the listener.

Simple Declaratives

If you want to say That’s an… or I’m a…, you can simply state the noun inflected with the appropriate suffix.

  1. sfc-l
    pup-1

    I’m a pup.

  2. HJq-Mr
    tree-3P

    This is a tree.

You can include adjectives.

  1. sfc-Mr jk
    pup-3P little

    This is a small pup.

    This pup is small.

This is also how you introduce yourself.

  1. qfrrmKsk-l
    Hearthfire-1

    I’m Hearthfire.

    My name is Hearthfire.

Note that example 42 can be interpreted in two different ways in English, even though the overall meaning is the same. There is a pup close to the speaker, and it is small.

Conjunctions

Words like j /short high weak growl/ and, and l /short low weak grunt/ or, work similarly to how they do in English.

  1. qCq-0 qMqm-g j qgKq-g
    see-A human-3I and yinrih-3I

    I saw a human and a yinrih.

  2. DB-0 rfbr-0 l DB-0 rDB-0
    can-A walk.on.4.legs-A or can-A walk.on.2.legs-A

    You can walk on four legs or you can walk on two legs.

If you want to say both…and or either…or repeat the conjunction at the beginning of the list.

  1. qCq-0 j qMqm-g j qgKq-g
    see-A and human-3I and yinrih-3I

    I saw both a human and a yinrih.

  2. l rBFr sNLr-g l qBf sNLr-g
    or four leg-3I or two leg-3I

    Either four legs or two legs.

Example 47 is a proverb that means something that applies equally to humans and yinrih.

Verbs

Verbs lack a lot of the inflection seen in other languages. They don’t indicate tense. lPr can mean climb, climbed, or will climb, depending on context or clarifying adverbs like yesterday or soon. There are no complicated conjugations to memorize. lPr is always lPr regardless of who’s doing the climbing or how many of them there are.

Moods

Verbs do change based on mood. Mood is a complicated and nuanced topic in Commonthroat, and the same verb form can mean different things in different situations.

The Authoritative and Nonauthoritative Moods

All the examples so far have been in the authoritative mood. It’s considered the default verb form and has no suffix, or in linguistics terms it’s said to have a null suffix. You’ll see this marked as -0 in the top line of glosses, and it has a glossing abbreviation of -A. In general, the authoritative mood indicates that the speaker is confident that the statement is true. Example 1 is presented below with the authoritative mood marked in the gloss.

  1. sfc-p lPr-0 HJq-g
    pup-3D climb-A tree-3I
    The pup climbed the tree.

The authoritative mood is contrasted with the nonauthoritative mood, marked with the suffix -b /short low weak whine/. The nonauthoritative mood indicates a hedge on the part of the speaker regarding the truth of the statement. Nonauthoritative verbs are usually translated as I think that... or it seems that... or with words like may or might.

  1. sfc-p lPr-b HJq-g
    pup-3D climb-NA tree-3I
    The pup may have climbed a tree.
Egophoricity

When the subject of a sentence is in the first person, the verb ending indicates whether the action was intentional or not. This is referred to as egophoricity. Authoritative verbs indicate the action was done on purpose. Nonauthoritative verbs indicate the action was unintentional.

  1. B HJq-p smpr-b
    from tree-3D fall-NA

    I fell from the tree (accidentally).

  2. B HJq-p smpr-0
    from tree-3D fall-A

    I fell from the tree (on purpose).

    I dropped down from the tree.

Egophoricity also occurs in questions when the subject is in the second person.

  1. mp B HJq-p sFsF-qn smpr-b
    INT from tree-3D friend-2 fall-NA
    Did you fall from the tree?
Evidentiality

If you have a main clause with a verb like "see", "hear", etc, where the object of the verb is another clause describing what is seen or heard, the verb in the object clause can be in the authoritative form if the speaker directly witnessed the event (not necessarily visually). If the speaker is inferring the event based on indirect evidence, the second verb is in the nonauthoritative form.

Consider the following scenario: A dam is watching one of her pups play outside, and she sees him cut his tail against a thorny plant.

  1. 0 qCq-0 rdc-qn rlnq-0 g slPq-qn
    [I] see-A poor-2 cut-A POS tail-2
    I saw you cut your tail, poor dear.

A similar situation, but the child comes inside after playing, and one of his dams notices that his tail is bleeding, but didn’t see him cut his tail.

  1. 0 qCq-0 rdc-qn rlnq-b g slpq-qn
    [I] see-A poor-2 cut-NA POS tail-2
    I see you cut your tail, poor dear.

Example 53 and 54 illustrate another use for first and second person nouns. The word slpqg /yip, short rising strengthening grunt, huff, short low weak growl/ means poor or pitiable, and is a term often used when the speaker wishes to express empathy for the listener’s plight.

The Dogmatic Mood

The dogmatic mood is marked with the suffix -K /long high strong growl/. It is used when the truth of the statement is being emphasized. It may be translated using the emphatic do in English. In glosses it has the abbreviation -DOG.

  1. sfc-p lPr-K HJq-p
    pup-3D climb-DOG tree-3D

    The pup did climb a tree.

    I swear the pup climbed the tree.

The dogmatic mood is also used when making promises.

  1. sjr 0 rGKqsfb-K
    tomorrow [I] return-DOG
    I promise I’ll be back tomorrow.

And when making threats.

  1. 0 sNMq-K khqkh-qn
    [I] kill-DOG guy-2
    I WILL kill you.

Other uses of the dogmatic mood include proclaming laws, making axiomatic statements, and expressing confidence or trust.

The Mirative Mood

The mirative mood is used to indicate surprise on the part of the speaker. Mirative verbs end in -sfsf /yip, short high strong whine, yip, short high strong whine/. In glosses it has the abbreviation -MIR.

  1. sfc-p lPr-sfsf HJq-g
    pup-3D climb-MIR tree-3I
    Wow! The pup climbed a tree!

The mirative mood can be used to express sarcasm. If one speaker makes an assertion using the dogmatic mood:

  1. p g rMLcdr-Mr nl-K khqkhfd-g NPr
    in POS computer-3P is_at-DOG little.guy-3I odd
    I swear there’s a funny little guy in my computer.

The responder may repeat the assertion, inflecting the verb in the mirative mood in mock surprise:

  1. p g rMLcdr-qN nl-sfsf khqkh-fd-g NPr
    in POS computer-3M is_at-MIR guy-DIM-3I odd
    Really? There’s a funny little guy in your computer?

Verb Serialization and Coverbs

Commonthroat verbs have no infinitive form. Instead, you serialize verbs to indicate things like the purpose or result of a verb of motion, as well as to indicate aspect.

  1. rGKq qJq
    come swim

    [I’m] coming to swim.

  2. lPr HJq-Mr rCFq qcD-g
    climb tree-3.PROX eat fruit-3.INDEF

    [I’m] climbing this tree to eat some fruit.

Asking Questions

One way to ask questions has already been covered. By inflecting a noun with an interrogative ending, you can ask the listener to identify the noun so inflected.

  1. rMLcdr-BD qgJ-0
    computer-INT use-A
    Which computer do I use?

If you want to ask how many of something there are, you inflect the noun Cbg /late low weakening whine, short low weak growl/ number, amount with the interrogative ending.

  1. Cb-BD g qhq-qN j dcr-qN
    Amount-INT POS sire-3M and dam-3M

    What number are your sires and dams?

    How many sires and dams do you have?

This is not a trivial question, as yinrih can have anywhere from two to twelve natural parents.

You can ask simple yes/no questions by sticking the word mp /short rising strong grunt/ at the beginning of the sentence.

  1. mp rMLcdr-Mr qgJ
    INT computer-3P use

    Do I use this computer?

  2. qln-DB 0 qfdr-0
    manner-INT [you] stand-A

    How do you stand?

This is how you ask someone if they’re OK.

Using the Nonauthoritative Mood When Asking and Answering Questions

When you ask a question with a third person subject, you can mark the verb as nonauthoritative if you think it’s a stupid question.

  1. mp BC-K qMqm-g rBD-b
    INT all-time human-3I walk.on.hind.feet-NA

    *Stupid question, but do humans walk on their hind feet all the time?*

    I should really know this already, but do humans walk on their hind feet all the time?

    I know you told me before, but I forgot. Do humans walk on their hind feet all the time?

As with normal yes/no questions, the person answers by repeating the main verb. If he inflects it in the dogmatic mood, that indicates he regards the answer as definitive.

  1. rBD-K
    walk.on.hind.feet-DOG
    Yes, they do walk on their hind feet [all the time].

If, however, the person answering the question wants you to take his response with a grain of salt, or wants you to trust but verify his answer, he can infelect the verb in the nonauthoritative mood.\

  1. rBD-b
    walk.on.hind.feet-NA

    Yes, I think they do.

    I’m pretty sure they do.

    I think so, but don’t take my word for it.

Rhetorical Questions

Just like in English, questions can be rhetorical rather than literal.

  1. rnL nq h qnlq-g lNrm-DB rnP-0
    not Among PL sick-3I healer-INT live-A
    What healer does not abide among the sick?

Indirect Objects

Words like give and show take an indirect object denoting to whom something is being given or shown. In Commonthroat, the preposition rl /chuff, short low weak growl/ indicates an indirect object. In glosses, this is abbreviated DAT for dative, reflecting a similar construction in Latin and Greek.

  1. rl g sFsF-Mr 0 dFr-0 HJq-Mr
    DAT POS friend-3P [I] show-A tree-3P
    I showed the tree to my friend.

Voice and Coverbs

The Passive Voice

Most sentences are in the active voice, which is when the subject of the sentence does something to the object. In English, we’d say The dog bit the man. The subject (the dog) is doing something (biting) to the object (the man). Here’s a typical Commonthroat sentence in the active voice.

  1. rBFrrnqsk-Mr kHr-0 sPlqBdsk-p
    four.paw-3P strike-A wet.nose-3D
    Fourpaws struck Wetnose.

What if we wanted to put the focus on the object instead of the subject? We’d use the passive voice, in which the subject of the sentence is being acted upon. In English, you form the passive voice by using the verb to be plus the past participle of the main verb. You can indicate who’s doing the acting by using the preposition by. The man was bitten by the dog.

In Commonthroat, we use a coverb. Coverbs are a kind of hybrid between a verb and a preposition. Like prepositions, they can take an object. Like verbs, they are inflected for mood. 80 expresses the same event as 79, but uses the passive coverb rj /chuff, short high weak growl/. The object of rj is the person performing the action expressed by the main verb, and the subject of the whole sentence is the one being acted upon. In linguistics, this is called the patient, and the person doing the action is called the agent.

  1. sPlqBdsk-p rj-0 rBFrrnqsk-Mr kHr-0
    wet.nose-3D PAS-A four.paw-3P strike-A
    Wetnose was struck by Fourpaws.

Just as in English, you can avoid mentioning who’s performing the action by simply dropping it. The man was bitten. It may not be important who bit the man, or the speaker may wish to avoid saying who bit the man.

In Commonthroat, we can also drop the agent, but we must keep the coverb to indicate the sentence is passive.

  1. sPlqBdsk-p rj-0 kHr-0
    wet.nose-3D PAS-A strike-A
    Wetnose was struck.

The Reciprocal Voice

Many languages have a way of expressing that the subject and the object of a sentence acted upon one another. English uses the reciprocal construction one another. The dog and the man bit one another.

Commonthroat uses another coverb, pr /short high strong grunt, chuff/. If there are two different parties acting on one another, one is placed at the head of the sentence as the subject and the other is the object of the coverb pr.

  1. rBFrrnqsk-Mr pr-0 sPlqBdsk-p kHr-0
    four.paws-3P RECP-A wet.nose-3D strike-A
    Wetnose and Fourpaws struck one another.

If you have a plural noun or a noun that otherwise indicates a group such as LMrg assembly, moot, you can simply place that in the subject position and use the coverb without an object as you would with a passive construction whose agent is missing.

  1. LMr-Mr pr-0 rDB-0
    moot-3P RECP-A speak-A
    The congregation spoke amongst themselves.

The Reflexive Voice

The agent can also be the patient of the same action. This is called the reflexive voice. It’s used when someone does something to himself. English uses reflexive pronouns myself, yourself, herself, etc.

Commonthroat uses another coverb. This time it’s rp /chuff, short high strong grunt/. It’s used in the same manner as the passive voice without an agent.

  1. rBFrrnqsk-Mr rp-0 kHr-0
    four.paws-3P RFLX-A strike-A
    Fourpaws struck himself.

As with the reciprocal voice, you can use a noun referring to more than one person, or to a group. In this case it indicates that each member of the group acted upon himself as an individual.

  1. LMr-Mr rp-0 rDB-0
    moot-3P RFLX-A speak-A
    The members of the congregation spoke each to himself.

Words that Change Meaning Depending on Voice

Aspect

Aspect refers to how the action described by a verb extends over time. That sounds a lot like tense, doesn’t it? However, tense has to do with when in time an action takes place. For example, the sentences I walk and I am walking are both in the present tense, but the first sentence is in the simple aspect, while the second is in the progressive aspect. This distinction also exists in the past tense. I walked and I was walking, as well as the future tense, I will walk and I will be walking. The simple aspect describes actions that are regarded as a complete whole, while the progressive describes actions that are ongoing, and often occur simultaneously with other actions. I was walking and I saw my friend.

While Commonthroat verbs do not indicate tense. You have to use context or time-related adverbs to relate when an action takes place. Verbs by themselves don’t have inherent aspect, either, but Commonthroat has a number of fixed serial verb constructions that indicate aspect, and this can give a different shade of meaning to the verb.

The Prospective Aspect

The prospective aspect indicates that an action is on the verge of occuring, and uses the verb Lmq /late low strengthening grunt, huff/, which means to fix or to repair.

  1. 0 Lmq-0 lPr-0 HJq-Mr
    [I] fix-A climb-A tree-3P
    I’m about to climb this tree.

The Completative Aspect

The completative aspect indicates that an action has come to a natural end. It uses the verb bf /short rising strengthening whine/, which means to finish, or to complete.

  1. 0 bf-0 rCFq-0
    [I] finish-A eat-A
    I’ve finished eating.

Quick word of warning: you might be tempted to say qhgl I’m full if you want to politely decline a second helping of food. This is actually a euphemistic way of saying I have to use the restroom. It still means you’re full, just not your stomach. While we’re on this tangent, don’t say qhgqn you’re full, either. It means you’re full of it!

The Cesative Aspect

The completative aspect contrasts with the cesative aspect. The cesative aspect indicates that an action stopped abruptly, without coming to a natural conclusion. Compare I finished talking and I stopped talking. The first sentence indicates that you were done, while the second does not. The cesative aspect uses the verb fb /short falling weakening whine/ which means to stop or to halt

  1. 0 fb-0 rCFq-0
    [I] stop-A eat-A
    I stopped eating.

The Inchoative Aspect

The inchoative aspect indicates that the action described by a verb is just starting. It uses the verb sg /yip, short low weak growl/ to begin.

  1. 0 sg-0 lPr-0 HJq-p
    [I] begin-A climb-A tree-3D
    I begin climbing the tree.

The Superfective Aspect

The superfective aspect uses the verb GJq /long rising weak growl, huff/ which means to persist or to keep on.

  1. rdc-Mr GJq-0 sFb-0
    poor-3P persist-A vomit-A
    This poor guy keeps vomiting.

Words that change meaning depending on aspect

Why am I making a big deal about these aspects? They just seem like regular serial verb constructions. Well, some verbs have different meanings depending on their aspect.

rn I know becomes sg rn I find out and fb rn I forget.

Important note: sg specifically means to start a task or start doing something. If you want to say start in the sense of turn on, that’s rMNq ignite. Similarly, to say you turned something off, that’s qNMr extinguish.

fCq /early falling strong whine, huff/ means have or possess. sg fCq means begin to have, find or come across. fb fCq stop having means to lose or relinquish.

These aspects are well-established across dialects, but other looser constructions exist as well.

Adverbial phrases expressing time

In English, we think of the past as being behind us and the future as being ahead. In Commonthroat, the past is below and the future is above. When discussing at which point in time an event occurred, you use the adverbial phrase DC m /long falling strengthening whine/ below. for events that occurred in the past, and CD m /long rising weakening whine/ above for events that will occur in the future. You precede this phrase with time words like sdFr shkqg a few years or KJq MNqg three days and so forth.

  1. qBf MNq-p DC m 0 bf-0 GJHG-p
    two day-3D below ADV [I] finish-A task-3D

    I finished that task 2 days ago.

  2. sdFr MNq-Mr CD m 0 sBr-0
    some day-3P above ADV [I] leave-A

    I’m leaving in a few days.

Notice that the word Mnqg day can take deictic suffixes. In general, which suffix is used indicates whether the timespan was long or short in the speaker’s estimation. Using the proximal suffix indicates that the event described happened in the recent past or will happen in the immediate future. The distal suffix is used if the timespan is judged to be very long.

The first sentence may also be translated I’ve been done with that task for two days already. The second sentence could also be translated I’m leaving in just a few days.

Similarly, you can use the interrogative suffix to ask how long ago or how long from now an event will take place.

  1. MNr-BD DC m 0 bf-0 GJHG-p
    day-INT below ADV [you] finish-A task-3D
    How many days ago did you finish that task?

Appendix

Vowel Pronunciation Table

Romanization Timing Tone Strength Phonation
b short low weak whine
B long low weak whine
c short low strong whine
C long low strong whine
d short high weak whine
D long high weak whine
f short high strong whine
F long high strong whine
g short low weak growl
G long low weak growl
h short low strong growl
H long low strong growl
j short high weak growl
J long high weak growl
k short high strong growl
K long high strong growl
l short low weak grunt
L long low weak grunt
m short low strong grunt
M long low strong grunt
n short high weak grunt
N long high weak grunt
p short high strong grunt
P long high strong grunt
bc short low strengthening whine
bC early low strengthening whine
bd short rising weak whine
bD early rising weak whine
bf short rising strengthening whine
bF early rising strengthening whine
Bc late low strengthening whine
BC long low strengthening whine
Bd late rising weak whine
BD long rising weak whine
Bf late rising strengthening whine
BF long rising strengthening whine
cb short low weakening whine
cB early low weakening whine
cd short rising weakening whine
cD early rising weakening whine
cf short rising strong whine
cF early rising strong whine
Cb late low weakening whine
CB long low weakening whine
Cd late rising weakening whine
CD long rising weakening whine
Cf late rising strong whine
CF long rising strong whine
db short falling weak whine
dB early falling weak whine
dc short falling strengthening whine
dC early falling strengthening whine
df short high strengthening whine
dF early high strengthening whine
Db late falling weak whine
DB long falling weak whine
Dc late falling strengthening whine
DC long falling strengthening whine
Df late high strengthening whine
DF long high strengthening whine
fb short falling weakening whine
fB early falling weakening whine
fc short falling strong whine
fC early falling strong whine
fd short high weakening whine
fD early high weakening whine
Fb late falling weakening whine
FB long falling weakening whine
Fc late falling strong whine
FC long falling strong whine
Fd late high weakening whine
FD long high weakening whine
gh short low strengthening growl
gH early low strengthening growl
gj short rising weak growl
gJ early rising weak growl
gk short rising strengthening growl
gK early rising strengthening growl
Gh late low strengthening growl
GH long low strengthening growl
Gj late rising weak growl
GJ long rising weak growl
Gk late rising strengthening growl
GK long rising strengthening growl
hg short low weakening growl
hG early low weakening growl
hj short rising weakening growl
hJ early rising weakening growl
hk short rising strong growl
hK early rising strong growl
Hg late low weakening growl
HG long low weakening growl
Hj late rising weakening growl
HJ long rising weakening growl
Hk late rising strong growl
HK long rising strong growl
jg short falling weak growl
jG early falling weak growl
jh short falling strengthening growl
jH early falling strengthening growl
jk short high strengthening growl
jK early high strengthening growl
Jg late falling weak growl
JG long falling weak growl
Jh late falling strengthening growl
JH long falling strengthening growl
Jk late high strengthening growl
JK long high strengthening growl
kg short falling weakening growl
kG early falling weakening growl
kh short falling strong growl
kH early falling strong growl
kj short high weakening growl
kJ early high weakening growl
Kg late falling weakening growl
KG long falling weakening growl
Kh late falling strong growl
KH long falling strong growl
Kj late high weakening growl
KJ long high weakening growl
lm short low strengthening grunt
lM early low strengthening grunt
ln short rising weak grunt
lN early rising weak grunt
lp short rising strengthening grunt
lP early rising strengthening grunt
Lm late low strengthening grunt
LM long low strengthening grunt
Ln late rising weak grunt
LN long rising weak grunt
Lp late rising strengthening grunt
LP long rising strengthening grunt
ml short low weakening grunt
mL early low weakening grunt
mn short rising weakening grunt
mN early rising weakening grunt
mp short rising strong grunt
mP early rising strong grunt
Ml late low weakening grunt
ML long low weakening grunt
Mn late rising weakening grunt
MN long rising weakening grunt
Mp late rising strong grunt
MP long rising strong grunt
nl short falling weak grunt
nL early falling weak grunt
nm short falling strengthening grunt
nM early falling strengthening grunt
np short high strengthening grunt
nP early high strengthening grunt
Nl late falling weak grunt
NL long falling weak grunt
Nm late falling strengthening grunt
NM long falling strengthening grunt
Np late high strengthening grunt
NP long high strengthening grunt
pl short falling weakening grunt
pL early falling weakening grunt
pm short falling strong grunt
pM early falling strong grunt
pn short high weakening grunt
pN early high weakening grunt
Pl late falling weakening grunt
PL long falling weakening grunt
Pm late falling strong grunt
PM long falling strong grunt
Pn late high weakening grunt
PN long high weakening grunt

Glossary

bc /short low strengthening whine/
on, upon
dq /short low strong whine, huff/
A forest
HJqg /long rising weakening grunt, huff, short low weak growl/
A tree
lPr /early rising strengthening grunt, chuff/
To climb
P /long high strong grunt/
in, within
qDCg /huff, long falling strengthening whine, short low weak growl/
A mountain
rbfq /chuff, short rising strengthening whine, huff/
old (in the sense of elderly)
rnL /chuff, early falling weak grunt/
not (adverb)
rpM /chuff, early falling strong grunt/
small
sfcg /yip, short falling strong whine, short low weak growl/
A child, yinrih or human. A juvenile yinrih is referred to in English as a kit from the time of conception until it is weaned, at which point it is called a pup or puppy.
spr /yip, short high strong grunt, chuff/
Yesterday